Comparative skeletal features between Homo floresiensis and patients with Primary growth hormone insensitivity (Laron syndrome)

Comparison between the skeletal remains of Homo floresiensis and the auxological and roentgenological findings in a large Israeli cohort of patients with Laron Syndrome (LS, primary or classical GH insensitivity or resistance) revealed striking morphological similarities, including extremely small stature and reduced cranial volume. Laron syndrome is an autosomal recessive disease caused by a molecular defect of the GH receptor or in the post-receptor cascades. Epidemiological studies have shown that LS occurs more often in consanguineous families and isolates and it has been described in several countries in South East Asia. It is our conclusion that the findings from the island of Flores, which were attributed to a new species of the genus Homo, may in fact represent a local, highly inbred, Homo sapiens population in whom a mutation for the GH receptor had occurred.

Skeletons of dwarfs have been found in many archaeological sites from around the world. Nevertheless, their descriptions (morphologically and metrically) are very limited. In this project, we investigated the skeleton of a male dwarf, approximately 35-50 years old, found in the Byzantine cemetery (5th-8th century CE) of Rehovot-in-the-Negev, a small Christian city on the major pilgrim route to Mount Sinai and St Catherine’s monastery. Living stature was estimated at 120-125 cm. Detailed morphological skeletal descriptions and morphometric analysis, together with CT observations, suggest a diagnosis of achondroplasia. The long bones anomalies, in tandem with other features such as hydrocephalus and spinal stenosis, were discussed concerning their effect on the dwarf's daily life. The putative place of dwarfs in early Christian communities, compared with dwarfs from other times and places, were addressed as well.

The roots of violence: Was the agriculture revolution a turning point in human dominance and aggressive behavior? The lesson from the southern Levant

The major goal of our research project is to uncover the impact of the 'Agricultural revolution' on the range and nature of violence in Near Eastern prehistoric populations, based on injuries to their bones. The study will enable better understanding of the biological, economical, cultural and environmental factors that had been involved in the evolution of violent behavior in human populations. The transition from foraging and hunting to farming was the most significant cultural process in human history. The people who made this dramatic shift in the Levant are the Natufian (10, 500-8,300 BC), who planted the seeds of change, and the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (ca. 8,300-ca. 5,500 BC) people, who established the first farming communities. Studying their violent activities might prove beneficial for tracing the roots of human violence and its motive/rationale, and should prove insightful to our understanding of current human aggression.

Tuberculosis in the Neolithic
Despite extensive research over period of more than 100 years, the timing, cause and geographical origin of TB in humans is still a mystery. Did animals provide the original source of MTB in humans, in particular newly domesticated cattle in the Eastern Mediterranean region during the agriculture revolution (ca. 8,300-5,500 BC), as was and still is commonly believed. As prevailing as the theory may be, there are some impediments to it, namely: 1) Recent work suggests that the relationship between bovine and human TB may have been more akin to co-evolution than direct transmission. Genetic analysis of the pathogen from a Pleistocene bison bone (17,000 years) showing tubercular-like infection indicates greater similarity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. africanum than to M. bovis (Rothschild et al., 2001). Furthermore, all MTB complex aDNA examined by Spoligotyping consistently demonstrates that the organisms are not M. bovis. 2) It is still not clear how the TB bacillus, which is known to exist in several species of wild animals (e.g., lions, deer, bison, elephants, mongoose, cows, badger), spread to domesticated cattle. 3) The oldest human skeletal evidence of TB from the Mediterranean region are all roughly dated to a much later period, i.e., the fourth millennium BC and later. This later date is confirmed by pathological and molecular findings reported for Egyptian mummies (some dating back to the XXIst Dynasty) and skeletons (the oldest dated to 3300 BC) that have been reported as having tuberculosis-like pathology. 4) The spread of TB from cattle to human occurred largely by the drinking of infected milk. Yet cattle milking and milk consumption did not start until the “Secondary Products Revolution” in the fifth-fourth millennium BC. 5) According to Keusch et al. (1969), by two years of age virtually all Neolithic children were lactase-deficient, i.e., they lacked the ability to metabolize milk. Biological tolerance of adult populations to bovine milk and milk products only began in the Neolithic period (McCracken, 1971). In this case only infants would have consumed milk and thus contracted bovine TB, which would probably have killed them quickly. Yet, due to taphonomical processes, infant skeletons are hardly preserved at prehistoric sites. 6) When considering TB infection, herd size is of greater relevance than human population size (Manchester, 1991). With few exceptions, the harsh unpredictable Mediterranean environmental conditions, including large arid zones and hilly topography, are not suitable for raising large herds of cattle.
Underwater excavation of an Eastern Mediterranean pre-pottery Neolithic site, dating from 9250-8160 years ago, revealed human skeletal remains with morphological evidence of tuberculosis, including the remains of an adult female and infant buried together. Molecular studies from these two individuals demonstrated Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA from various parts of the genome, which was sequenced and typed in independent laboratories. Tuberculosis was confirmed by the detection of M. tuberculosis-specific mycolic acid lipid biomarkers. This is the earliest confirmed presence of human tuberculosis, in a population living in one of the first villages with evidence of agriculture and animal domestication.

The Old Lady from Sussita

A single skeleton was found in a sarcophagus located east to the south aisle of a church. The sarcophagus was covered by a large monolithic limestone slab and was oriented west-east. On its western part, the covering limestone manifested a cup-shaped concavity with a drill at its base penetrating through it. The church's floor reached the lower edge of the sarcophagus covering stone, but did not run over it. The monolithic covering stone as well as the upper part of the sarcophagus were rising above the church's floor. The internal space of the sarcophagus was rectangular in shape, the western part of it manifesting a concave appearance. The sarcophagus was massive, wall thickness being 10-12 cm in width and was made of a single curved limestone box. No inscription were noticed on the walls of the sarcophagus itself, nevertheless, on one of the surrounding marble slabs that were attached to the walls of the sarcophagus, a Teutonic Cross were found. No personal belongings neither any offering were found within the sarcophagus. The sarcophagus was covered by a thick layer of white plaster.
The human remains were all concentrated on the western part of the sarcophagus. The bones were not in their anatomical positions, indicating either secondary burial or interference of the original burial. The pile of bones was not random, but rather organized in a very peculiar manner. The long bones were prearranged in a 'table-shape' manner, the legs (two humeri and one femur on one side and a femur, tibia and fibula on the other) along the long axis of the sarcophagus while the plate (tibia) along the short axis. All other bones were placed within the inner space of the table, including the skull (now fragmented) that was placed on top of the postcranial bones (in the center). Under the skull the os coxae and sacrum were placed and underneath them the rest of the postcranial bones. The bones were in a very fragmentary condition. Due to post-depositional processes much of the bones' mineral content was lost, making the bones light and fragile. Large areas of the bones manifest a 'worm-eaten' appearance. The inventory included most of the cranial and post cranial bones.
All bone parameters indicated that the skeleton probably belonged to a woman of low stature (152 cm) and advanced age (>50 years). As mentioned before, all bones were very light and porous, raising the suspicion that this woman suffered from advance condition of osteoporosis, i.e., a reduction of total bone mass per unit volume. Women normally suffer a substantial acceleration of this phenomenon during the post-menopausal state. The osseous changes seen in the vertebrae i.e., osteophytes are also indicative of the advance age of this individual. Cause of death could not be ascertained for this individual. No specific pathology was noticed. The identity of the woman remained a mystery.

Treponemal Diseases
Of the three treponemal diseases that leave marks on the bones: Bejel, syphilis and yaws, the first two are evident in the archaeological material of Israel. In the past few years, the debate as to whether treponemal infection predated Columbus has been revived. The origin and osteological manifestation of treponemal diseases has become of major interest to paleopathologists. There has been an inability to distinguish between the different treponemal diseases, syphilis, yaws and bejel, based on osseous material only. This, however is not altogether surprising since, in addition to osteological studies, other methods (e.g. immunological) have also proven to be indeterminant in distinguishing bejel from yaws. Yaws, however, is more similar to bejel, than it is to syphilis. Both are acquired in childhood; may present symptoms which last for many years, and produce similar bone changes.
In the eastern Mediterranean region, endemic syphilis is known as bejel, the exact origin of which is unknown. The first medical report on the disease appeared in the mid-19th century. The word bejel and its relatives "bishel" and "belesh" are probably derived from an old Arabic root-word meaning "sores", which carries no venereal connotation. Bejel among Bedouin appears to be a thoroughly domesticated disease and thus it is not fatal. Its most striking feature is swelling in the long bones, particularly the tibia. It seems reasonable to contend that "bejel is the lineal descendant of yaws brought over from Abyssinia and Central Africa by migrants and slaves in prehistoric times...". According to Hudson: "Those who are familiar with yaws will confirm the observation that.....bejel illustrations are not to be distinguished from those obtained from corresponding lesions in yaws". Indeed Hudson noted that "...of 1,160 Bedouins who acknowledged bejel, two-thirds stated they had acquired it in childhood" and that "most of the adults who had early lesions said they had caught bejel from children". Also, according to Hudson, "general pain in the bones, particularly at night, was a complaint of about one-fifth of the Bedouins, and pain in specific bones, particularly the tibiae, was present in another fifth".
Diagnosis of Bejel was made on the skeletal material recovered at the Lahav site, north of Beer Sheva, Israel. In the last centuries this area was dominated by the Ramadin Bedouin tribe, which moved into the region in the 16th century from Saudi Arabia. More than 100 skeletons, of varying ages and both sexes were found in hyena caves, precluding study on an individual basis. Aside from observation of all articular and cortical surfaces, radiology and histology were also performed. Analyses were carried out in three stages: a) bejel was determined on the basis of periosteal reaction, gummatous osteitis, and draining sinuses (cloaca); b) affected bone was subjected to X-ray analyses; c) using saw microtome, the bone was cross-sectioned at the affected part (the bone material was not decalcified), and histologic specimens were prepared. The unstained sections were studied using light microscopy with polarized light.

Oral microbiota and the spread of dental diseases in the Near East

In human, as well as other animals studied to date, the interrelationship between host and associated resident microbiota plays a critical role in health and disease. The complexity of such interactions is most evident in the human mouth, which can play host to as many as 500 different adherent microbial species. Whereas in some cases the resident oral microbiota play a protective role (e.g., in preventing colonization and proliferation of Candidal species), oral bacteria are also involved in two of the most prevalent current diseases of mankind, i.e., dental caries and periodontal disease. Both these diseases are considered to be associated with colonization of the tooth surface by certain strains of particular species. Dental caries are thought to be associated with mutans streptococci, although Actinomyces and lactobacilli have also been considered to play a role. Periodontal diseases may involve a wide variety of proteolytic Gram-negative species, including Fusobacterium, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and spirochetes.
Although evidence for both these diseases have been found in skulls of early Pleistocene hominids, they become wide-spread only in post-Pleistocone populations.
In this study we will demonstrate that the changes in oral diseases frequencies through time in Israel were accompanied by changes in the microbiota makeup of the peoples' mouth, and that it can be correlated with changes to historical/economical events.
Dental calculus (tartar) is probably the best source for studying ancient oral bacteria. Calculus is a mineralized plaque that adheres to the tooth surface and is covered by an unmineralized bacterial layer. Plaque implies dense non-calcified bacterial masses firmly adherent to the tooth. Steps involved in plaque petrification were described by White. Within the mineralized matrix bacteria are the main component, with some epithelial cells, blood cells, and remnant food debris. Owing to its mineral content, dental calculus survives well in hominid fossils.

Leprosy in ancient Israel

Leprosy is a disease caused by chronic infection with Mycobacterium leprae. The non-heritable disease involves principally the superficial peripheral nerves and skin, while the clinical features vary and are determined by the vigor of the hosts defensive reaction to the infection. Though highly infectious, particularly for young children, only a minority of those infected will actually acquire the disease clinically. In fact, Hansen the discoverer of the Mycobacteria for which the disease is named, injected himself with live bacteria in hopes of understanding the disease better.
Of all the Biblical diseases described, none is so widely known or misunderstood as the dermatological conditions which are listed in Leviticus:13-14 under the term ‘tsarrat’. The confusion surrounding the exact meaning of the Hebrew term and it’s Greek translation lepra from a historical, religious and medical perspective has generated over the millennia a vast literature. Despite this enormous literary effort, the exact meaning of the term is today still shrouded in confusion with numerous attempts to clarify the exact meaning of this skin condition. Tsaraat, the Hebraic term for Biblical leprosy like all other diseases in the OT was considered a divinely ordained punishment for sin and the bible makes it clear what sins are involved, slander, tale-bearing, infringing on the rights of ones neighbor and fraud all of which are crimes committed by one against ones neighbor (Feldman 1966:988).
Our research concentrated on a single case found in a burial cave dated to the Roman period.

Rheumatology in Biblical times

Evidence for the presence of rheumatologic diseases (i.e., spondyloarthropathy, psoriatic arthritis) are reported from several historic sites from Israel. For example, lesions typical for psoriatric arthritis were found in a group of individuals uncovered in the tomb of Paulus in the Byzantine Monastery of Martyrius, in the Judean Desert (10 km east of Jerusalem). This large monastery was built in the fifth century AD and destroyed during the Persian invasion of 614 AD, never to be rebuilt.
Many scholars believe that psoriasis, a common dermatological condition in ancient times, is in fact the biblical leprosy. It is not surprising to find a concentration of individuals with PA in a desert monastery considering the theological shift (from ostracism to concern) occurred during the Byzantine period. The early Christian community regarded sufferers as being chosen by God to suffer in this world for the world to come. As a result, special facilities were built for their care (Zias, 1986).
Extensive study was carried out by this laboratory on rheumatoid diseases in ancient Israel.

Possible Congenital Hemolytic Anemia in Prehistoric Coastal Inhabitants of Israel
The spread of thalassemia among prehistoric populations of the Mediterranean Basin has been linked to the increased risk to early agriculturalists posed by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite. The diagnosis of the disease in human skeletal remains, however, has usually been based on a single pathological criterion, porotic hyperostosis. This paper reports on what we believe to be the earliest case of thalassemia yet identified in the prehistoric record. Our diagnosis of the disease in an individual of the submerged Prepottery Neolithic B village of Atlit-Yam off the Israeli cost is based on a pathological humerus demonstrating a pattern of deformation characteristic of clinical thalassemia. The implications of these findings for our understanding of human societies under going the transition from foraging to agriculture in the Near East are discussed.