 |
 |
--------------
Publications
--------------
|
|
|
Revelations from Megiddo
The Newsletter of the Megiddo Expedition
November 1998
|
|
Number 3
|
Showdown at San Francisco
Tenth-Century Chronology Debate Rages at SBL Meeting
The Directors of the Megiddo Expedition headed to beautiful San Francisco last
year for a conference sponsored by the Society of Biblical Literature.
Hershel Shanks, Editor of Biblical Archaeology Review, chaired the main session,
dedicated to the 10th-century debate. The standing room only session was good
naturedly described by Professor Lawrence Stager as "The San Francisco
Showdown" (see Dec. 31, 1997 Wall Street Journal).
|
|
|
The debate exists as there is no absolute chronological anchor between the end of the Egyptian
20th Dynasty in the 12th century and the Assyrian campaigns in the late 8th (see Finkelstein in
Levant 1996). The key Megiddo stratum is VA-IVB, widely believed to be Solomonic.
Finkelstein argues that the Solomonic city should possibly be identified with Stratum VIA, and
VA-IVB with the Omrides.
Two pillars support the prevailing chronology: 1) The theory that the Philistines were settled in
the southern coastal plain of Canaan immediately after their battle with Ramses III (1175 BCE).
Since excavations at multi-strata sites showed that the characteristic Philistine pottery, Bichrome,
had a long life-span, it was dated to the 12th-11th centuries. Strata just above levels with
Philistine Bichrome were accordingly dated to the 10th; 2) The attribution of Megiddo Stratum
IV to Solomon, based on the connection between Solomon's building activity at Megiddo, his
chariot cities (mentioned in I Kings 9:15, 19), and the pillared buildings, identified as stables,
uncovered at Megiddo.
Yadin redated the pillared buildings to Omride Stratum IVA and the Solomonic city to VA-IVB,
characterized by ashlar palaces (e.g., Palace 6000,
which Yadin partially excavated, and which we further exposed
|
|
Ariel Wapnish-Hesse (Megiddo Archaeozoologist Paula Wapnish's daughter) cleans the destruction
debris of Stratum VIA (Level K-4) in Area K. Stratum VIA is the last "Canaanite" city at Megiddo.
|
this summer). Yadin's new order was
based on the posited link between the gates at Megiddo, Hazor and Gezer and Solomon's building
activities in I Kings 9:15. However, Ussishkin has shown that the gate at Megiddo should be affiliated
with Stratum IVA, later than Solomon's days. Further, similar gates have been found at sites of the
late Iron Age II as well as sites outside the borders of the Solomonic state.
As for the "Finkelstein correction's" upper anchor, Monochrome pottery, representing the first phase of
Philistine settlement, has not been found in any Egyptian stronghold. Further, the Egyptianized pottery
of the southern 20th-Dynasty sites has not been found in the Monochrome strata at Ashdod and Tel
Miqne the Monochrome stratum was built over the destroyed 20th-Dynasty city. Thus, Monochrome
is post-Egyptian rule, i.e., late 12th century, while Bichrome, which developed from Monochrome, was
in use in the 11th/early 10th centuries. Hence, the first strata to postdate Bichrome should be dated
to the mid- to late 10th century.
As for the lower anchor at Megiddo, Philistine Bichrome is absent from the Stratum VIA ceramic
assemblage. Thus, VIA can hardly be dated in the 11th century. Further, the pottery of Stratum VB
and monumental Stratum VA-IVB are very different. Nearly all "Canaanite" features disappear, and
typical Iron Age II types are introduced. This pushes VA-IVB into the early 9th century. Moreover, the
pottery assemblage from the Omride compound at Tel Jezreel is similar to that of Megiddo VA-IVB.
Thus, the two sites were probably destroyed around the same time, in the mid-9th century. This traps
Stratum VA-IVB into a narrow chronological slot, i.e., the first half of the 9th century.
These issues involve the nature of the United Monarchy vis-à-vis monumental architecture and material
culture. They raise the question whether the United Monarchy was an expanding or a fullblown state;
or alternatively, whether it was the northern state of Israel, after the breakdown of the United Monarchy,
which was the first full-blown state.
The "Showdown" allowed adherents to the conventional wisdom and the challengers to meet and discuss
the issues. Lawrence Stager of Harvard and William Dever of Arizona State defended the accepted
chronology, and Ussishkin and Finkelstein argued for the new ideas. Ussishkin discussed the difficulty
in reconciling the monumentalpalaces at Megiddo with the dearth of evidence from the United Monarchy
in Jerusalem. Finkelstein presented his theory, with reference to Megiddo. The conference saw much
vigorous debate among friends, but brought no verdict. We will have to wait for further excavation at
the key site of the debate - Megiddo.
Israel Finkelstein and Jared Miller
The 1998 Excavation Season
The 1998 Megiddo Expedition Staff consisted of: Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Baruch Halpern
(Directors); Norma Franklin (Expedition Coordinator and Area F Supervisor); Lynne Koppeser (Team Member
Coordinator); Paula Wapnish (Archaeozoologist); Benjamin Sass (Small Finds); Eyal Buzaglo and Lucas Petit
(Area H Supervisors); Jennifer Peersman (Area J Supervisor); Yuval Gadot (Area K Supervisor); Yulia
Gottlieb and Assaf Yasur-Landau (Area K Assistants); Ann Killebrew and Gunnar Lehmann (Area L
Supervisors); Eric Cline (Area L Assistant); Robert Deutsch (Area M Supervisor); Judith Dekel and Bill
Kennedy (Architects); Noga Blockman and Adi Kafri (Registration); Lenna Benenson (Computer Support);
Pavel Shrago (Photography); Gilead Cinammon (Administration).
The Megiddo Expedition conducted its third full season of excavation this summer from June 14 to July
31. Excavation was continued in the four areas dug in '94 and '96, and begun in two new areas.
In Area F, on the lower terrace to the northeast of the tell proper, we excavated another level in
the occupation sequence. On the crest of the rampart (constructed in the MBII; by the LBI it was
already out of use) we uncovered the remains of the unfortified LBI village, which revealed Bichrome
pottery, scarabs and miniature ivory work. This was apparently the settlement which saw the
approaching Egyptian army of Thutmose III. The fact that it was unfortified fits the data uncovered
by the Oriental Institute on the upper tell, but shows the difficulty in comprehending the text
describing the siege of Megiddo (see "Thutmose III and the 'Aruna Pass Survey" in
Revelations No. 2). The LBI
settlement was deserted, not destroyed.
|
|
The thick plaster floor of the Stratum IVA "stable" excavated in Area L. Note the stone troughs and pillars
to the left.
|
Area H continued to serve as the main sectional trench on the northern side of the mound,
as it is immediately adjacent and related to the finds of the University of Chicago in Area AA.
A better understanding of the Chicago stratigraphy in Area AA is one of the principal aims of
our work in Area H.
Level H-3, excavated in '94 and '96, dates to the 8th century and is to be identified with
Chicago Stratum IVA. This season we found another phase, H-4, from this same period,
beneath H-3. Hence, in this domestic area, unlike other sectors of the tell, Stratum IVA
consists of two phases. However, there is continuity between them, as the walls of H-3 reuse
the foundations of the walls of H-4. At the end of the season
|
|
Assemblage of Iron Age bowls, juglets, jars and pots from Area H. The ceramics from Areas H and K
are expected to shed light on the controversial dating of Megiddo's "Israelite" strata.
|
we penetrated into the remains of Level H-5, which should be identified,
apparently, with Stratum VA-IVB, which is one of the currently hotly disputed strata in Biblical
Archaeology.
In Area J excavation was furthered in the vast temple compound (see "The Megiddo Temple
Complex" in Revelations, no. 1)
in an attempt to clarify the layout of the monumental Early Bronze
Ib temple (Chicago Stratum XVIII, late 4th millennium). The monumental remains of Level J-4 -
the three parallel walls and the corridors between them - are unique in the Levant. First, they are
the most monumental EBIb remains ever excavated in the region. Second, the faunal assemblage
from the corridors (analyzed by Archaeozoologist Paula Wapnish) and next to the later EBIII altar
is the most elaborate cult discard ever found in the Levant. Third, the size of the EBIb site,
extending east of the Jenin-Haifa road, is unparalleled. This is among the best evidence yet
discovered for the beginning of urban life in the fourth millennium. It tells us much about the cult
practices at what must have been a regional center of sacrificial activity. This season contributed
significantly to our understanding of this stratum. We believe now that the temple was on the
northern side of the parallel walls, which apparently served as temenos walls.
More data has been collected on Level J-5 as well, though uncertainty about its dating continues.
Directors Finkelstein and Ussishkin date it to the early EBIII (third millennium), while A. Joffe, who
will publish the pottery, still prefers an EBIb/early EBII date (late fourth millennium). Both account
for the Egyptianized vessels found in 1996 ("Egyptians at Early Bronze Megiddo" in
Revelations No. 2). If the
Directors' dating prevails, it would be the first such clue for links between Canaan and Egypt in
the third millennium.
Area K is also crucial to the current debate concerning the 10th century, as we reached the floors
of Stratum VIA, our Level K-4. The pottery assemblage collected from the floors is expected to be
extremely important for the dating of this level, and is being restored in the laboratories of Tel Aviv
University. Stratum VIA is to be dated either to the 11th century (according to the prevailing
chronology) or to the 10th century (if one accepts the Low Chronology). In any case, the remains
of of Stratum VIA indicate that Megiddo constituted a major city at the time, the last which
exhibited features of "Canaanite" material culture. In subsequent strata, the typical Iron Age II
pottery assemblages, with their hallmark red-burnished wares, take over. In terms of relative
chronology, there is no doubt that the assemblage is post-Philistine Bichrome, in fact, later than
most of the ensuing "degenerated" Philistine types. From the absolute chronology point of view,
this evidence seems to strengthen the possibility of dating Stratum VIA later than the 11th century
BCE.
The K-4 remains provide spectacular evidence for the annihilation of the city in a terrible fire, which
turned the mud bricks red; hence, its nickname, the "red brick city". The cause of the destruction
is unclear. The debris included large wooden beams from the roofs of the buildings, samples of which
have been sent to the lab for the identification of the wood and radiocarbon dating.
Two "new" areas were opened this summer also. The first, Area L, is the location of Palace 6000,
a beautiful ashlar structure partially excavated by Yadin. The excavation of the area revealed three
strata. The uppermost included remains of stone-paved courtyards, dating to Chicago Stratum III,
the Assyrian city. The main feature of level two is a set of "stables", similar to those excavated by
the Oriental Institute. Each unit is built of three longitudinal halls, separated by a row of stone
mangers and pillars. The side halls are paved with pebbles, the central aisles with thick plaster.
There is an ongoing debate about the function of the buildings - stables, storehouses, barracks or
markets. We took samples from the floors in order to try to identify chemical residues that would
indicate animal waste products.
Palace 6000 no doubt belongs to Stratum VA-IVB. However, the excavations in this area should be
vital to the debate about absolute chronology. The building was constructed in the bit hilani manner,
an architectural style traditionally understood as influenced by similar northern Syrian architecture;
but there, according to Finkelstein (Ussishkin disputes Finkelstein's interpretation), all known Iron
Age bit hilani are of the 9th and 8th centuries. How they can be considered prototypes for the bit
hilani of northern Israel in the 10th century is problematic.
The excavation of Palace 6000 was conducted in cooperation with the Israeli Parks Authority, which
had asked the aid of the Megiddo Expedition in excavating the palace and preparing it for display to
the public. The beautiful ashlar palace and the pillared buildings (the "stables") will be the main focus
of a virtual reality presentation, which will include the installation of on-site computers. The idea is
to present it to the public mainly through non-intrusive systems. This project is a result of
cooperation between the Megiddo Expedition, the National Parks Authority, the 10th-century CE site
of Ename, east of Brussels, Belgium, and the Province of East Flanders, Belgium. The presentation
project is headed by Ann Killebrew of the Megiddo Expedition.
The excavation of the palace is part of a study project of state formation in northern Israel, backed
by the German Israeli Foundation for Research and Development. The project is headed by Michael
Niemann (University of Rostock, Germany), who also brought a contingent to this summer's dig, and
Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin.
Several universities sent contingents to Megiddo, including Loyola-Marymount and the University of
Southern California, headed by Jessica Redford, Vanderbilt University, coordinated by Julye Bidmead
and Deborah Appler, and Macquarie University, coordinated by Michael Birrell.
Finally, we began cleaning and reinvestigating the trench excavated by Gottlieb Schumacher at the
beginning of this century for the German Society for Palestinian Research (Schumacher, G. 1908.
Tell el-Mutesellim I). We excavated four squares (Area M) next to the large, beautiful tomb
excavated by Schumacher (found empty). The tomb, unique in this country, is probably that of a
second-millennium Megiddo monarch. We were able to redate the tomb to the later phase of the
LB and to redate other elements in the area to the LB, rather than the MB.
In the evenings, the educational program provided a number of
|
|
Egyptian scarab in gold mounting from Area M, next to Schumacher's LB royal tomb.
|
students, undergraduate and graduate, with credit courses in various aspects of the archaeology of the Levant.
Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Baruch Halpern
In the Footsteps of the OI
In November 1997 the Directors of the Megiddo Expedition took a five-day trip to the
windy city in order to study the archive of the Megiddo excavations of the 1930s
conducted by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Here is their summary.
We were cordially met at the University of Chicago by Oriental Institute Director Gene
Gragg and given friendly and professional help by archivists John Larson and Raymond
Tindel. We sorted through the large collection of fascinating photographs, including
balloon pictures from the 1920s and the excavation pictures, some taken by Gordon
Loud himself, Director of the excavations from 1935 to 1939. We listed all the photos
we wanted. Those that were immediately relevant to the 1998 excavations we received
in time for the summer's dig, while the rest will be given to us once the archive facilities
have completed their current expansion. Many of the photos have never been published,
yet are vitally important for our own work; for example, pictures of the temple compound
of Area J of the renewed excavations, especially those including elements which were
long ago removed. We also requested some wonderful pictures of the staff from the
romantic "good old days" of the excavations.Another highlight was a chance to view the
motion picture prepared by James Henry Breasted, who founded the Oriental Institute in
1919. The film is an archaeological travel documentary from the early 1930s which gives
the viewer a glimpse of the great Oriental Institute expeditions in the Middle East,
including Khorsabad (Dur Sharrukin, the "Fortress of Sargon", near Nineveh), Susa (the
Elamite capital in southeastern Iran), Alaca Höyük (a major Hittite city in
Anatolia) and, of course, Megiddo, on which the film, The Human Adventure, contains
quite a long section. We were able to get a video copy of the old reel-to-reel film.
We then examined all the plans of the expedition. It was exciting to see the originals
with the handwriting of the Oriental Institute excavators, such as Clarence S. Fisher,
P.L.O. Guy and Gordon Loud. We asked to copy only one plan, relevant to the summer's
excavations, a plan of the northeastern sector of the mound, the area in which Palace
6000 was later uncovered by Yigael Yadin of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and
which we began excavating this summer.
We were also able to check the personal field diaries of R.S. Lamon and G. Loud. The
narrative of the daily progress of the expedition is an important source of information.
The journals have been utilized several times in past scholarship, e.g., in that by Y.
Shiloh on the Iron Age gate.
Finally, we presented two lectures, the first, a well-attended presentation at Breasted
Hall for faculty, students and the general public, entitled, "The Renewed Excavations of
Megiddo: In the Footsteps of the Oriental Institute"; and the second, for University of
Chicago students and faculty, concerned the Early Bronze cult compound in our Area J.
Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Baruch Halpern
The Gossip Corner
Alex Joffe, Area H supervisor in '96, and Rachel Hallote, Area F assistant in '96, are the
proud new parents of Rose Shifra, as of 15 Oct. '98. She weighed in at 58.4 cm. (23 in.)
and 3.17 kg. (7 lbs.) and has lots of black hair and a great appetite.
Congratulations to Eyal (cosupervisor in Area H) and Michal Buzaglo, who were married
August 12 in Tel Aviv. Apparently, there will be grounds for more congratulations in a
few months!
Michelle Burns, square supervisor in Area M, is now the Assistant Editor of the Tel Aviv
Journal of the Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology.
Directors Israel Finkelstein and Baruch Halpern have both taken the 1998-99 year on
sabbatical. Finkelstein is at the Sorbonne in Paris, while Halpern is at the University of
Heidelberg, Germany.
|
|
|
|
|
|
